approaching significancep = 0.06
Short-term interventions (≤6 weeks, SMD = 0.80) had significantly greater effect sizes compared to long-term interventions (>6 weeks, SMD = 0.50), and higher training frequency (≥3 sessions/week, SMD = 0.92) was superior to lower frequency (<3 sessions/week, SMD = 0.33), with subgroup heterogeneity approaching significance (I 2 = 72%, p = 0.06).