Finger-tracking captures distinct cognitive signatures in L1 vs. L2 reading.

While the baseline tracking time for short words did not differ significantly between L1 and L2 readers ( p >0.05), the group × length interaction was highly significant ( p < 7 e −16), indicating that L2 readers show a steeper increase in tracking time for long words compared to L1 readers.

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For L2 readers, the effect of sentence well-formedness did not reach conventional levels of statistical significance [ Kruskal–Wallis χ 2 (1) = 3.63, p = 0.057], indicating only a marginal trend toward reduced accuracy for violated sentences.

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